Art 4 Unit I Review, Part II

28.00 Map of Mesoamerica

This is part two of the Unit I review which covers the following periods, geographical areas, cultures and sites: CLASSIC PERIOD: Oaxaca State - Zapotec culture (Monte Alban site) Mixtec culture (Mitla site) West Mexico: Nayarit State (Ixtlan del Rio and Chinesco styles) Colima State Guerrero State (Mezcala style) LATE CLASSIC/EARLY POST CLASSIC PERIOD: Morelos State - Xochicalco site POST CLASSIC PERIOD: Hidalgo State - Toltec culture (Tula site) Valley of Mexico - Aztec culture (Tenochtitlan site)

29.00 Monte Alban was the center of the Zapotec civilization. Located high on an artificially leveled mountain, this ceremonial center flourished during the heyday of the culture, in the Classic period. At this time, the Zapotecs of the site seem to have controlled a confederacy of Oaxaca Valley sites. Monte Albán consists of a series of pyramid platforms of talud-tablero form that are arranged within a large plaza. In the center of the plaza were four structures, Buildings G, H, I, and J. The latter is a unique, projectile point-shaped building that was used for astronomical observa- tions. On the west side of the plaza is the Preclassic period Danzantes gallery; at the north end is the largest of the edifices, the North pyramid; on the northeast side is a small I-shaped ballcourt.

30.00 This view of Monte Alban shows Building J in the foreground. Building J's narrow corridors appear to have been designed to align with important astronomical events. The relief sculptures built into the structure show conquests of enemy cities; some of the reliefs are re-used Danzante stones.

31.00 During the early phases of the Zapotec development, there was rather strong Olmec influence in Oaxaca. This Monte Albán I Urn shows Olmec affiliations in the down-turned mouth. Some sites in the Oaxaca Valley, such as San Jose Mogote, reveal an elite intentionally mimicking Olmec art styles and customs.

32.00 These are also Monte Albán I ceramics. They represent the Zapotec lightning-rain deity, Cocijo. You will note that these are simply head urns; the entire body of the figural motifs in urns is not shown until Monte Albán III period.

33.00 The Danzantes Gallery was constructed at Monte Alban during the site's first phase, in the Preclassic period. The building was faced with dozens of contorted relief figures, whose facial features reveal Olmec influence. However, there is little doubt that they were done by Zapotecs. The theme of these carved stones is the torture and sacrifice of enemy peoples who have been conquered by the early Zapotec inhabitants of Monte Alban.

34.00 At its height, the Zapotecs of Oaxaca were creating extraordinarily beautiful and detailed urns depicting various deities or deity impersonators. This example, of Monte Alban III vintage, refers to the Maize deity. Such containers were found in the sometimes elaborately painted tombs of the Classic period. The urns of this era were full figure urns, with the hands of the figure conventionally resting on its upper legs. The flowery profusion of detail in the headdress and costume are offset by a serene, meditative calm of the face.

35.00 The Zapotecs were ultimately overrun in the Oaxaca Valley by the Mixtec peoples. During the Postclassic period, the Mixtecs came to dominate many previously Zapotec cities, such as Mitla, Zaachila, and Yagul. This illustration is the plan of Mitla. Some of the building groups are of Zapotec manufacture, but the most spectacular and well-preserved group, the Group of the Columns is Mixtec. It is composed of a series of long, low, horizontal buildings arranged about a central plaza.

36.00 The most conspicuous aspect of Mixtec architecture is the extravagant use of a mosaic technique of ornamentation for buildings' facades. Generally heavily framed, as in this example, the mosaics are variations of the Mixtecs' favorite theme, the step spiral design. The step spiral often refers to the cross-section of a conch shell in Mesoamerican art; the motif and the shell are symbols of Quetzalcoatl, a deity sometimes claimed as the legendary ancestor of the Mixtec people.

37.00 The Mixtecs were renowned during the Postclassic period for their fine craftsmanship in ceramics, jewelry, and small scale wood and stone sculpture. The finest of Mixtec ceramics is the type seen here, Cholula Polychrome, a high gloss red, orange, black and white ware of extremely fine workmanship. The step spiral design and the tripod snake-form legs are characteristic of the style. Cholula Polychrome was the ceramic preferred by Aztec emperors, who imported great quantities of the ware from the Mixtec territory.

38.00 Many of the colors appearing in Cholula Polychrome pottery re-appear in the codices (screen- folded books) of the Mixtecs. This is a detail from the Codex Nuttall, a codex that deals with the life his- tory of one of the great Mixtec leaders, Eight Deer. Eight Deer managed to coalesce a large territory by conquest and strategic marriages. At one point in his career, he was even honored by the neighboring Toltecs; he received a special nose ornament (indicating his status as a tecuhtli) for his assistance against a mutual enemy. The scene to the right shows the nose piercing ceremony.

39.00 Gold-working techniques were not introduced into Mexico until approximately the 10th century A.D. The Mixtecs were the first Mexican Pre-Columbians to learn to work metals from more neighboring groups in Central and South America. They were to become Mesoamerica's finest metallurgists, working the metal with a variety of techniques, from lost wax casting (cire perdue) to hammering and repousse. The greatest single cache of Mixtec goldwork was discovered in the early 1930s by Alfonso Caso at Tomb 7 in Monte Alban. The Mixtecs had re-used an old Zapotec tomb to bury their own dead and their own grave goods. The result was an astonishing array of gold pendants, miniature masks, and necklaces, carved jaguar bones, pearls, and turquoise pieces.

40.00 This is a beautiful double sided carved crystal cup from Tomb 7 at Monte Alban. Crystal is a particularly difficult medium to work with because it is easily fractured. This piece gives further testimony to the refined craftsmanship of the Mixtec.

41.00 During the flow of Pre-Columbian history from the Preclassic to Classic to Postclassic in the rest of Mesoamerica, West Mexico seems to have remained relatively unchanged from an essentially Preclassic way of life. Fairly small villages of perishable materials with an occasional mud and stone temple were the centers for small scale farming communities for hundreds of years. The area of West Mexico is best represented artistically by its ceramics, the majority of which seem to have served funerary roles. When found in situ, they are usually associated with deep shaft tombs, such as those found in Nayarit and Jalisco states. Two of the most distinctive ceramic styles of the West are from Nayarit. The first is that of Ixtlan del Rio. Here, nearly caricatural images of toothy warriors with basketry caps, multiple earrings, and crescent shaped septum ornaments dominate. Heavy body painting is often indicated.

42.00 The other striking Nayarit style is known as Chinesco because of its "Oriental" appearance. Chinesco figures show careful detailing in the treatment of the hair and generally seem more fleshy and natural in appearance than their Ixtlan del Rio cousins. Found in male-female pairs in tombs, they may have been deity pairs intented to give protection to the deceased.

43.00 Colima state developed a ceramic figural style centering on compact, curving forms. This "warrior" figure, like many of Colima's polished, red-slipped ceramics, may represent a shaman warding off evil spirits from the deceased.

44.00 This Colima ceramic most assuredly represents a shaman. The horned helmet is a repeated accoutrement of these major players in Pre-Columbian religions, who served as psycho-pomps (guides) for the dead and as intermediaries for their living communities with the spirit world.

45.00 The most famous subject matter found in Colima ceramics is the dog. Doubtlessly serving several purposes in life, from family pets to sources of meat, dogs also had an important role in Mesoamerican religious beliefs; they were "guide- dogs" for the deceased who could lead the dead person's soul to the land of the dead, Mictlan.

46.00 Stone sculpture is relatively rare in the West Mexican area, but there was one small region in Guerrero state where this art form proliferated: the Mezcala region. Mezcala stone figures are typically abstract in appearance, with simple grooves indicating facial features and fingers. The degree of simplicity allies these images with some of the more avant-garde twentieth century sculpture of artists like Constantine Brancusi.

47.00 Xochicalco was one of several sites which emerged as major centers after the fall of Teotihuacan. Like Cacaxtla to the east, Xochicalco shows evidence of contact with or domination by the Putun Maya (Olmeca Xicallanco). Both of these sites display a blending of Maya and Mexican features. The Pyramid of the Feathered Serpent, seen here, is a talud-tablero structure like Teotihuacan, but includes Maya-style glyphs and figures.

48.00 By the 900s A.D., a new force had risen in Mesoamerica, that took over the unifying role once held by Teotihuacan. This new force was the Toltec culture and it was centered in Tula (located in Hidalgo State north of the Valley of Mexico). The plan of Tula shows the ceremonial heart of the site: the large pyramid with colonnade in front is the Pyramid of Quetzalcoatl (also known as Pyramid B and the North Pyramid); to its left is the "Burnt Palace." In layout, the structures are somewhat reminiscent of Teotihuacan, but there is no reason to believe there is a direct connection between these two civilizations. The Toltecs appear to have been a mixed race, including Chichimecs from the north and possibly other peoples of Gulf Coast and Xochicalco.

49.00 The Pyramid of Quetzalcoatl sat behind a colonnade of rectangular supports. Its own stairway was fronted by two serpents with their tails upraised. At the top, four Atlantean warrior figures and four rectangular columns bearing relief warriors once supported the temple roof. The outer surfaces of the temple walls were decorated with tenoned reliefs of jaguars, coyotes, eagles, and Venus symbols, while the entire sacred precinct surrounding Tula's temples was enclosed by a serpent wall (a coatepantli).

50.00 This is a detail of the Atlantean warriors on the top of the Pyramid of Quetzalcoatl at Tula. These warriors are brutally carved, showing little in the way of detail or fleshiness. Their boxy images seem designed to impress the viewer with the warriors' strength and viciousness, rather than with any finesse of carving ability! Each figure holds in his hands a spearthrower (atlatl) and darts and bears a butterfly symbol on his chest, symbolizing transformation. It is likely the transformation alluded to is that of darkness to light, for the warriors may metaphorically allude to the "defeat" of darkness by Venus morning star (Quetzalcoatl).

51.00 One of the most typical sculptural forms developed by the Toltec is the Chacmool. The Chacmool is a figure reclining on its back; on its stomach is a receptacle for sacrificial offerings. As with most Toltec art the carving is perfunctory and the figure has a rather brutal, blocky feel about it.

52.00 The relief sculptures from the Toltecs' Pyramid of Quetzalcoatl include symbols of this culture's warrior orders: jaguars, coyotes, and eagles. The bottom row of images are references to Venus morning star (Quetzalcoatl) as the Feathered Serpent. This style of relief, called "cookie cutter," is a simple two level relief, lacking many nuances or details. Originally the sculptures were plastered and painted.

53.00 A coatepantli (serpent wall) cordoned off the sacred precinct of Tula from its secular parts. The wall receives its name from the serpent and skeleton designs visible in the central band of reliefs. A similar coatepantli was constructed by the Aztecs at their capital, Tenochtitlan.

54.00 The Aztecs, a wandering group of largely Chichimec origins, entered the Valley of Mexico area nearly a century after the fall of the Toltecs at Tula. Establishing themselves on a small island in Lake Texcoco, by military might and tenacity, the Aztecs came to dominate Mesoamerica during the late Postclassic period. By the time of the arrival of Cortes, Tenochtitlan was a booming canal city larger than the London of King Henry VIII. The heart of the city was the teocalli, or sacred precinct.

55.00 This reconstructed model of the teocalli shows several of the major features of this ceremonial sector of Tenochtitlan. In the foreground is the coatepantli (serpent wall), enclosing a ballcourt (center), the Templo Mayor (the double temple on the left of the picture that was dedicated to Huitzilopochtli and Tlaloc), and the Pyramid of Quetzalcoatl (the round building between the ballcourt and the Templo Mayor). There were said to be some 78 temple pyramids in the city, as well as a skull rack (tzompantli) which held some 130,000 skulls when the Spanish arrived.

56.00 Aztec sculpture is oftentimes massively powerful. This 8 foot high stone work depicts Coatlicue (Serpent Skirt), an earth goddess who gave birth to the Aztec tribal deity, Huitzilopochtli. The pair of serpent heads rising above Coatlicue's body symbolize the blood that gushed forth when her daughter (the moon) and her sons (the stars) beheaded her, jealous of the new godly offspring in her womb.

57.00 The Aztecs worshipped numerous deities, most of whom required sacrificial victims. Xipe Totec, the god of spring renewal, seems to have been particularly fond of victims who were flayed alive. Habitually, priests would wear the skin of the victim until it rotted off; the emergence of the priest's body from the dried skin thus symbolized the birth of new maize from the withered husk.

57.00 Tlazolteotl, the goddess of childbirth, was often called "filth-eater" because of her imagined ability to eat the sins of confessing individuals. Here she is shown giving birth to the young maize god. Something of a premium was placed on women giving birth to offspring; the fear of dying during birth was offset by the promise of avoiding Mictlan, the land of the dead. Women who died in childbirth were believed to travel with the sun across its journey in the western sky. The only other persons escaping Mictlan were warriors who died in battle (or as sacrificial victims) and those claimed by Tlaloc (those who died from drowning or being struck by lightning). Warriors travelled with the sun in its journey across the eastern sky, whereas the victims of Tlaloc were permitted to reside in Tlalocan, the Paradise of the Rain God.

59.00 Much of Aztec art revolves around the notions of sacrifice and the rebirth of natural forces. Heart containers (cuauhxicalli) were important pieces in the ceremonies; this is a particularly handsome sculpture of a recumbent jaguar. Despite the Aztecs' claims of greatness for Toltec artists, the Aztecs' own work is far superior in craftsmanship and vigor.

60.00 The Aztecs were a fatalistic people who believed that the world had four times been created and four times destroyed. According to Aztec legend, the present epoch or "sun" was formed at Teotihuacan through the collective sacrifices of the gods. It was man's duty to reciprocate by giving his blood and hearts to the gods to keep the sun and moon moving through the sky. The Calendar Stone may have been a monumental offering ("sacrifice") to the "Fifth Sun" (the current epoch) in the hopes of staving off its destruction by a predicted earthquake cataclysm. Its major motifs include: a symbol for the fifth sun in the center (perhaps the god Tonatiuh or Yohualtecuhtli) surrounded by four rectangular glyphs associated with the four previous epochs; the 20 day glyphs of the Aztec solar calendar; and the two Xiuhcoatls (Fire Serpents) symbolizing the 24 hours of the day. Stylistically, the relief resembles Mixtec codices and the Toltecs' "cookie cutter" style of carving.